(SLA) MID-TERM TEST

Name    : Safitri Dyah Utami

SRN        : 2201411058

Class      : 103-104

MID-TERM TEST

1.       What is second language acquisition?

Second language acquisition is the study of how people learn any language after getting their first language (mother tongue), it involves the language system and learning process.

2.       What is the difference between ‘second’ and ‘foreign’ language?

The defining factor between second language and foreign language is the language environment outside of the classroom.

Second language means that the language learner is exposed to the target language outside of the classroom in a variety of settings. They can use the second language in daily communication. For example, students who come from Indonesia to New York to learn English are learning in a second language environment.

Foreign language means that the learner will rarely have opportunity for use the target language outside of the classroom. For example, a student who is studying English while living in Indonesia would be studying a foreign language.

3.       What are the goals of SLA?

The goals of SLA are to describe how second language are acquired by learners and to explain the process which make a learner different in mastering second language better than other learners.

4.       Give an example of a ‘naturalistic’ learner. Why?

Naturalistic learner acquires second language naturally as a result of living in environment which the language is differ from their mother tongue. They learn second language because they get input from their environment, not from taking any language course before. They are very in tune with the environment so that they acquire second language by using it as the communication tool in their daily life.

5.       What is the difference between ‘mistakes’ and ‘errors’?

Mistakes reflect occasional lapses in performance. It happens when learners fail to perform the correct structure/knowledge that they know. For example, when someone wants to tell about his/her past experience, he/she has to use verbs in past form. However, he/she is not consistent use the past form, sometimes he/she still uses the present form. So, it can be called as mistakes.

While, errors reflect gaps in a learner’s knowledge. It happens because learners do not really know what the correct structure. For example, someone uses the present form consistently when telling past experience. It happens because he/she do not know any knowledge about it (do not know the past form of the verbs). So, it can be called as errors.

6.       Explain and give one example of ‘overgeneralization’.

Overgeneralization is errors which made by learners because they influence by the easy form of language to learn and process. They have learned a general concept, but do not yet understand its exceptions. For example, learners tend to use “eated” as past form in place of “ate”. Another example is learners tend to use “thinked” in place of “thought”.

7.       Explain two learning theories: Behaviorist and Mentalist. What are the implications of these learning theories for language teachers?

Behaviorist is proposed by B.F. Skinner, says that we acquire language through external stimuli and experience. So we can say that language learning involves habit formation (stimulus-response connection). While, mentalist is a theory associated with Noam Chomsky, says that language is innate. We are born with the mental capacity to work out the grammar and syntax of a language.

The implications of these learning theories for language teachers are: behaviorist learning theory cannot adequately account for language teachers to teach L2 learners, because learning is not just a response to the external stimuli. While in the mentalist learning theory teachers can use this theory for making their students acquire the second language by maximally using the human’s ability in predisposition.

8.       Consider the following data:

A: I like your shoes (expressing compliments)

B: Thank you

How can you explain the B’s response in terms of the acquisition of discourse rules?

Social factors effect second language acquisition but not directly. When we learn a language we don’t only learn it but we also learn its culture, social life, history. However there are social rules which native speakers obey when they communicate but L2 learner sometimes speak by taking into consideration the rules of his native language and he or she can change grammar rules, he or she can understand his speech because the meaning is convenient, but he or she can see that he makes an error because his speech doesn’t obey the grammar rules. These discourse rules can be transferred from L1 to L2 by communication.

(SLA) INSTRUCTION AND L2 ACQUISITION

Name    : Safitri Dyah Utami

SRN        : 2201411058

Class      : 103-104

INSTRUCTION AND L2 ACQUISITION

The goal of SLA is to improve language teaching. There are some researchers that have studied what impact teaching has on learning.

Form-focused Instruction

From the view of pedagogical background, there are two key question related to form-focused instruction;

·         Does form-focused instruction work?

Ied Pica: the effects of instruction may depend on the target structure that is being taught.

Instruction will not have any long-lasting effect on the way in which learners construct their interlanguage systems.

The effects of form-focused instruction are not restricted to careful language use but are also evident in free communication.

·         What kind of form-focused instruction works best?

There are Input-based instruction (learners had to listen to and respond to sentences containing the target structure) and production-based instruction. Both of the treatment group then be tested and the results show that the group that received input-based instruction did far better on the comprehensive test and production test.

These instructions can make a contribution to both languages pedagogy, by helping them to make teaching more efficient, and to SLA, by providing a means of testing theories of acquisition.

Learner-instruction Matching

Individual difference to do with such factors as learning style and language aptitude is likely to influence which options work best.

Learners with different kinds of ability may be able to achieve similar level of success providing that the type of instruction enables them to maximize their strengths.

Strategy training

Training students to use strategies that involve different ways of making association involving target words has generally proved successfully.

(SLA) INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN L2 ACQUISITION

Name    : Safitri Dyah Utami

NIM       : 2201411058

Class      : 103-104

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN L2 ACQUISITION

Affective factors can influence the degree of anxiety they experience and their preparedness to take risk in learning and using L2. Language aptitude and motivation are the general factors that influence the rate and level of L2 achievement.

1.       Language Aptitude

It is an ability related to general intelligence (to which they possess a natural ability for learning an L2) but also to be in part distinct. The components of language aptitude:

·         Phonemic coding ability                : the ability to handle sound-symbol relationship in foreign languages. For example, to identify the sound which ‘th’ stands for.

·         Grammatical sensitivity : the ability to recognize the grammatical functions words in sentences. For example, distinguishing the subject and object from a sentence.

·         Inductive language learning ability: the ability to identify patterns of correspondence and relations between form and meaning. For example, to distinguish the different function between ‘to’ and ‘at’.

·         Rote learning ability        : the ability to form and remember associations between stimuli.

Language aptitude is related to success in L2 learning. Different components of language aptitude may be implicated in different stages of processing.

2.       Motivation

It related to both attitudes and affective states that influence the degree of effort that learners make to learn an L2. It is dynamic in nature; it varies from one moment to the next depending on the learning context or task.

·         Instrumental motivation               : The major force determining success in L2 learning (related to functional reasons).

·         Integrative motivation                   : A motivation related to the interest in the people and culture represented by the target language group.

·         Resultative motivation                  : A motivation related to the result of learning.

·         Intrinsic motivation                         : A motivation which involves the arousal and maintenance of curiosity and can ebb and flow as a result of such factors.

3.       Learning strategies

Learning strategies affect the nature and the frequency of the learners. Learning strategies are particular approach or techniques which the learners use to learn L2.  It can be behavioural or mental.

·         Cognitive strategies

·         Metacognitive strategies

·         Social/affective strategies

Strategies which involve formal practice contribute to the development of the linguistic competence. Strategies which involve functional practice aid the communicative skills.

(AW) The Assignment of Week 9

Name    : Safitri Dyah Utami

NIM       : 2201411058

Class      : 103-104

ASSIGNMENT FOR WEEK 9

Ø  PRACTICE  1

A.      1. There are three direct quotations used in the model paragraph.

2. Reporting verbs and phrases that used to introduce the direct quotations are stated, quoted as saying, and according to.

B.      1. Dr. Yixuan Ma, a well-known astrophysicist who has been studying black holes, said, “It is one of the most interesting phenomena we astrophisicists have ever studies.”

2. As she explained, “In black holes, the laws of nature do not seem to apply.”

3. “A black hole is a tiny point with the mass 25 times the mass of our sun,” explained Ma’s associate, Chun-Yi Su. “Black holes are created by the death of a very large star,” she said.

4. “It is an invisible vacuum cleaner in space,” she added, “with tremendous gravitational pull.”

5. According to Dr. Su, “If a person falls into a black hole, he will eventually be crushed due to the tremendous gravitational forces.”

6. “Time will slow down for him as he approaches the event horizon,” she said, “and when he reaches the event horizon, time will stand still for him.”

Ø  PRACTICE 2

A.      1. There are four indirect quotations in the paragraph.

2. There reporting verbs or phrases introduce in the indirect quotations are said that, estimated that, and said. The one which do not contain the word that is according to.

B.      Yes, it follows the sequence of tenses rules. The verb tense does not change because it uses the phrase according to.

C.      1. Television channel KSA General Manager Jim Burns said that not everyone could attend college in the traditional way; therefore, taking courses via television would offer many more students the chance to earn a college degree.

2. Pre-med student Alma Rodriguez said that she missed being on campus, but she had to work and took care of her family.

3. Other students said that last year, they had spent several hours a day commuting to and from school. Now they didn’t have to do that.

4. Computer engineering student Amir Mehdizadeh stated that he could choose when to study and how to study without pressure. He also said that he would take two more telecourses in the fall.

D.      1. In 1993, the head of the International Olympic Committee’s medical commission, Prince Alexandre de Merode of Belgium, stated that he believed that as many as 10% of all Olympic athletes were regular users of performance-enhancing drugs.

2. In a 1997 article in Sports Illustrated magazine, Dutch physician Michael Karsten is quoted as saying that there might be some sportsmen who could win gold medals without taking drugs, but there were very few.

3. According to Dr. Karsten, if you are especially gifted, you may win once, but from his experience you can’t continue to win without drugs. The field is just too filled with drug users.

Ø  PRACTICE 3

A.      1. Artificial Languages

Notes:

Descartes – to create languages – international use – Esperanto – easy to learn and speak – drawn from English, German, the Romance languages – Latin – Greek – Interlingua – constructed from Latin, the Romance languages, and English – Esperanto – scattered – Interlingua – not yet achieved much popularity.

Paraphrase:

There were hundreds of studies to make artificial language for International use. One of the most successful was Esperanto which was introduced by Dr. Zamenhof of Poland. It derived from English, German, the Romance languages, Latin and Greek. After that, there was Interlingua which derived from Latin, the Romance languages, and English. However, Interlingua are not as popular as Esperanto which used by many people because of the ease of learning and speaking it.

2. Artificial Languages-Objections

Notes:

Objection – constructed languages – haven’t developed – thought carrying – direction – western European and American nations.

Paraphrase:

First difficulty to construct languages is the difficulties to develop ideas and meanings. It is very different from natural languages ​​are constantly evolving for centuries. Second, the artificial languages ​​always lead to the use of the language of the west. There are only a few loanwords from Slavic, Asiatic, and African.

B.      1. Americans

Notes:

Ethnic diversity – absorb – many culture – unique culture – anyplace – behavior – observable traits.

Paraphrase:

The United States has many kind of different cultures. It pervades into an exclusive culture which differ from other cultures and spread in the world. Their behaviors which very stick out are openness, friendliness, informality, optimism, creativity, loudness, and vitality.

2. The Work Ethic of Americans and Europeans

Notes:

Americans schedule – relaxation – Americans executives – drive hard – fewer holidays – shorter vacation – workaholics – europeans – not working on weekend.

Paraphrase:

Americans have a little rest time because of their busy schedules. Americans executives are kind of workaholic which take short time to relaxing themselves. No wonder, Americans executives will choose to work on weekend which is very different from Europeans that prefer not working on weekend.

Ø  PRACTICE 4

A.      1. Summary of Artificial Languages:

Esperanto was the most popular artificial language. It was introduced by Dr. Zamenhof of Poland. It was constructed from English, German, the Romance languages, Latin and Greek. Another artificial language was Interlingua. It was constructed from Latin, the Romance languages, and English. Interlingua was not very popular like Esperanto which used by people throughout the world because it was easier to learn and speak.

2. Summary of Artificial Languages-Objections:

There are some difficulties in building artificial languages. First, developing the same senses and ideas in artificial languages are not easy. Besides, making balance languages which carries not only the western thought but also all over the world thought is seen as a hard thing.

3. Summary of Americans:

The United States’ prominent cultures which very distinctive and spread all over the world are their behaviors. Their most popular behaviors are openness, friendliness, informality, optimism, creativity, loudness, and vitality.

4. Summary of The Work Ethic of Americans and Europeans:

Americans and Europeans have different views on working. Americans tend to have tight schedule and less free time. Otherwise, Europens tend to like more free time for vacation and reject to work on the weekend.

B.      Summary of A Less Social Becoming Shy

1.       Paragraph 1

American’s technologies such as Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) and self-service gas have conducted the society become uncommunicative. The developed technologies which spread in America make people more quiet and lonely in doing anything.

2.       Paragraph 2

There are three causative factors that make this shy society. Firstly, the automatic technology prevent people to communicate with others. Second, the personal computer and home electronic entertainment lead people have a little contact with others. They tend to use e-mail rather than telephone. Third, the different way of educating children and the fear of crime. Children rarely played outside so the kids do not have the opportunity to develop the leadership skills of the playground.

(AW) The Assignment of Week 8

­­­­Name    : Safitri Dyah Utami

NIM       : 2201411058

Class      : 101-102

ASSIGNMENT FOR WEEK 8

The Lioness

A fox was boasting to a lioness.

“You should see my four pretty cubs,” she said.

“I had them all at once you know and what about you? How many cubs do you have?”

“I have only one,” replied the lioness, “but that one is a lion.”

The Wild Boar and the Fox

A wild boar was sharpening his tusks against a tree one day when a fox came by. “What are you doing that for?” asked the fox. “There are no hunters around. Everything looks very peaceful to me quite true,” said the boar, “but when hunter does come with his dogs, I shall be too busy running away to have time for this. So, let me sharpen my tusks while I can.

(AW) The Assignment of Week 5

1. 2. 3

(SLA) LINGUISTIC ASPECTS OF INTERLANGUAGE

Name    : Safitri Dyah Utami

NIM       : 2201411058

Class      : 103-104

Second Language Acquisition

LINGUISTIC ASPECTS OF INTERLANGUAGE

Typological universals: relative clauses

In the study of relative clauses, we can find a good example of how linguistic enquiry can shed light on interlanguage development. The effects of relative clause structure on L2 acquisition are:

1.       We have known that the languages vary in whether they have relative clause structures. The languages, like English and Arabic that have the linguistic difference can influence the ease with which the learners are able to learn relative clause. It makes the learners easier to learn than learners whose L1 does not, like Chinese and Japanese. Consequently, they are less likely to avoid them.

2.       In languages like English, the linguistic structure influences how acquisition proceeds. It is because the fact that relative clauses may or may not interrupt the main clause. A relative clause can be attached to the end of a matrix clause, for example:

The police have caught the man who bombed the hotel.

                Or, they can be embedded in the main clause, for example:

The man who bombed the hotel has been caught by the police.

3.       Languages are more likely to permit relative clauses with a subject (for example, ‘who’) than with an object pronoun (for example, ‘whom’). English is the language that permits the full range of relative pronoun functions. It can be illustrated in a hierarchy of relativization that is known as the accessibility hierarchy. The accessibility hierarchy is implicational in the sense that the presence of a relative pronoun function low in the order in a particular language implies the presence of all the pronoun functions above it but not those bellow it.

This is the accessibility hierarchy for relative clauses – relative pronoun function:

1.            Subject, e.g. The writer who won the Booker prize is my lifelong friend.

2.            Direct object, e.g. The writer whom we met won the Booker prize.

3.            Indirect object, e.g. The writer to whom I introduced you won the Booker prize.

4.            Object of preposition, e.g. The writer with whom we had dinner won the Booker prize.

5.            Genitive, e.g. The writer whose wife we met won the Booker prize.

6.            Object of comparative, e.g. The writer who I have written more books than has won the Booker prize.

Universal Grammar

Based on Noam Chomsky, language is governed by a set of highly abstract principles that provide parameters which are given particular settings in different languages. A general principle of language is that it permits co-reference by mans of some form of reflective.

•             Local binding: where a reflexive can only co-refer to a subject within the same clause, like English.

•             Long-distance binding: where the reflexive co-refers to a subject in another clause, is prohibited.

The study proves that the learners whose L1 permits both local and long-distance binding of reflexives can learn that a language like English permits only local binding may seem a rather trivial matter, for example, Japanese learners.

Learnability

According to Chomsky, the input in children learning their first language is insufficient to enable them to discover the rules of the language they are trying to learn – the poverty of the stimulus. The input consists of:

•             Positive evidence: it provides information only about what is grammatical in the language.

•             Negative evidence: input that provides direct evidence of what is ungrammatical in a language.

But, the input does not provide the information needed for learning to be successful.

A logical problem in the case of first language acquisition:

•             The children must have prior knowledge of what is grammatically possible and impossible and this is part of their biological endowment.

The Critical Period Hypothesis

The critical period hypothesis states that there is a period during which language acquisition is easy and complete and beyond which it is difficult and typically incomplete. One study clarifies that age of arrival is a much better predictor of ultimate achievement than the number of years of exposure to the target language. There is considerable evidence to support the claim that the second language learners who begin learning as adults are unable to achieve native-speaker competence in either grammar or pronunciation. However, the other study finds that there is some evidence that not all learners are subject to critical periods. Some are able to achieve native speaker ability from an adult start.

Access to UG

Theoretical positions of no agreement in access to UG for the adult L2 learners:

1.       Complete access: Full target language competence is possible and that there is no such thing as a critical period.

2.       No access: UG is not available to adult L2 learners. They will normally not be able to achieve full competence and their interlanguages may manifest ‘impossible’ rules (rules that would be prohibited by UG)

3.       Partial access: L2 acquisition is partly regulated by UG and partly by general learning strategies.

4.       Dual access: Adult L2 learners make use of both UG and general learning strategies

However, it assumes that adult learners can only be successful providing they rely on UG.

Markedness

The study of markedness means the uncertainty regarding the contribution of linguistic theory to the study of L2 acquisition is also evident in another area of linguistic enquiry.

Hypothesis relating to markedness:

•             The learners acquire less marked structures before more marked ones.

•             Learners are much more likely to transfer unmarked structures from their L1 than they are marked structured.

Cognitive versus linguistic explanations

There is no consensus on whether L2 acquisition is to be explained in terms of a distinct and innate language faculty or in terms of general cognitive abilities. It allows for modularity – the existence of different components of language that are learned in different ways, some through UG and others with the assistance of general cognitive abilities.

(SLA) PSYCHOLINGUISTIC ASPECTS OF INTERLANGUAGE

Name    : Safitri Dyah Utami

NIM       : 2201411058

Class      : 103-104

Academic Writing

PSYCHOLINGUISTIC ASPECTS OF INTERLANGUAGE

Ø  L1 TRANSFER

L1 transfer refers to the influence that the learner’s L1 exerts over the acquisition of an L2.

›  The learner’s L1 is one of the sources of error in learner language (negative transfer)

›  The learner’s L1 can facilitate L2 acquisition (positive transfer)

                Behaviourist theories led to two developments:

›  Some theorist, espousing strong mentalist accounts of L2 acquisition, sought to play down the role of the L1.

›  Reconceptualize transfer within a cognitive framework.

According to Eric Kellerman, learners treat some linguistic features as potentially transferable and non-transferable. Kellerman found that advanced Dutch learners of English had clear perceptions about which meanings of ‘breken’ (‘break’) were basic in their L1. Transfer errors do not always occur when they are predicted to occur. Differences between the target and native language do not always result in learning difficulty.

He also found that they were prepared to translate a sentence like:

                                Hij brak zijin been. (He broke his leg.)

directly into English, using ‘broke’ for ‘brak’ but were not prepared to give a direct translation of a

sentence like:

                                Het ondergrondse verset werd gebroken.

                                (the underground resistance was broken.)

Other researchers have found that the transfer of some L1grammatical features is tied to the learners of English.

Transfer errors do not always occur when they are predicted to occur. Differences between the target and native language do not always result in learning difficulty.

When language transfer takes place there is usually no loss of L1 knowledge. This obvious fact has led to the suggestion that a better term for referring to the effects of the L1 might be ‘cross-linguistic influence.’

Ø  The Role of Consciousness in L2 acquisition

Adults seem to have work hard and to study the language consciously in order to succeed when they acquire L2. in contrast, children seem to do so without conscious effort when they acquire their L1. There are two opposing position which can be identified:

1.       Stephen Krashen has argued the need to distinguish ‘acquired’ L2 knowledge (i.e. implicite knowledge of language) and ‘learned’ L2 knowledge (i.e. explicit knowledge about language).

2.       Richard Schmidt has poinyed out that the term ‘consciousness’ is often used very loosely in SLA and argues that there is a need to standardize  the concept that underlie its use.  For example, he distinguihes between consciousness as ‘intentionality’ and consciousness as ‘attantion’.

‘Intentionality’ that refers to whether a learner makes an conscious and deliberate decition to learn some L2 knowledge. He failed to recognize that ‘incidental’ acquisition might in fact still involving some degree of conscious ‘attention’ to input. In the other words, learning incidentally is not the same as learning without conscious attention.

Irrespective of whether learners learn implicitly or explicitly, it is widely accepted that they can acquire different kind of knowledge. Explicit knowledge may help learners to move from intake to acquisition by helping to notice the gap between what they have observed in the input and the current state of their interlanguage as manifested in their own output.

Another way of identifying the processes responsible for interlanguage development is to deduce the operations that learners perform from a close inspection of their output. We shall examine two of them here; operating prinsiples and processing constrains.

Ø  Operating principles

Operating principles is the study of the L1 acquisition of many different language has led to the identification of a number of general strategies which children use to extract and segment linguistic information from the language they hear.

Ø  Processing constrains

Processing constrains sought to account for both why learners acquire the grammar of a language in a definite order and also why some learners only develop very simple interlanguage grammar.

Ø  Communication Strategies

Communicative Strategy – a way of overcoming a gap between communicative intent and a limited ability to express that intent, as part of the strategic competence. For example, : silkworm translated as worm and art gallery translated as picture place.

Ø  Two Types of Computational Model

1.       Serial Processing

Information is processed in a series of sequential step and results in the representation of what has been learned (the mind is processing one thing at a time in a series)

2.       Parallel Distributed Processing

This credits the learner with the ability to perform a number of mental  tasks at  the same thing. (the mind is processing multiple things at one time)

(SLA) DISCOURSE ASPECTS OF INTERLANGUAGE

Name    : Safitri Dyah Utami

NIM       : 2201411058

Class      : 103-104

Discourse Aspects of Interlanguage

The study of learner discourse in SLA has been informed by two rather different goals. On the one hand there have been attempts to discover howL2 learners acquire to ‘rules’ of discourse that inform native-speaker language use. On the other hand, a number of researchers have sought to show how interaction shapes interlanguage development.

Ø  Acquiring discourse rules

There are rules or at least, regularities in the ways in which native speakers hold conversation. In the United States, for example, a compliment usually calls for a response and failure to provide one can be considered sociolinguistic error. Furthermore, in American English compliment responses are usually quite elaborate, involving some attempt on the part of the speaker to play down the compliment by making some unfavourable comment.

However, L2 learners behave differently. Sometimes they fail to respond to a compliment at all. At other times they produce bare responses

There is growing body of research investigating learner discourse. This show that, to some extent at least, the acquisition of discourse rules, like tha acquisition of grammatical rules, is systematic, reflecting both distinct types of errors and developmental sequences.

Ø  The Role of Input and Interaction in L2 Acquisition

A number of rather different theoretical positions can be identified. A behaviourist view trearts language learning as environmentally determined, controlled from the outside by the stimuli learners are exposed to and the reinforcement they receive. In contrast, mentalist theories emphasize the importance of the learner’s ‘black box’. They maintain that learners’ brains are especially equipped to learn language and all that is needed is minimal exposure to input in order to trigger acquisition. Interactionist theories of L2 acquisition acknowledge the importance of both input and internal language processing. Learning takes place as a result of complex interaction between the linguistic environment and the leraners’ internal mechanisms. Two types of foreigner talk:

a.       Ungrammatically foreigner talk

It is socially marked. If often implies a lack of respect on the part of the native speaker and can be resented by learners. It is characterized by the deletion of certain grammatical features such as copula be , modal verbs and articles, the use of the base form of the verb in place of the past tense form, and the use of special constructions such as ‘no + verb’.

b.      Grammatical foreigner talk

It is the norm. various types of modification of baseline talk can be identified:

First, grammatical foreign talk is delivered at a slower pace.

Second, the input is simplified.

Third, grammatical foreigner talk is sometimes regularized.

Fourth, foreigner talk sometimes consist of elaborated language use.

According to Stephen Krashen’s input hypothesis, L2 acquisition takes place when a learner understands input that contains grammatical forms that í + I’. Karenshen suggests that the right level of input is attained automatically when interlocutors succed in making themselves understood in communication. Success is achieved by using the situational context to make messages clear and through the kinds of input modifications found in foreigner talk.

Michael Long’s interaction hypothesis also emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input but claims that it is most effective when it is modified through the negotiation of meaning.

Another perspective on the relationship between discourse and L2 acquisition is provided by Evelyn Hatch. Hatch emphasizes the collaborative endeavours of the learners and their interlocutures can grow out of the process of bulding discourse.

Other SLA theorist have drawn on the theories of L.S. Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, to explain how interaction serves as the bedrock of acquisition. The two key constructs in what is known as activity theory’, based on vygotsky’s ideas, are ‘motive’ and ‘internalization’.

·         First, concerns the active way in which individuals define the goals of an activity for themselves by deciding what to attend to and what not to attend to.

·         Second, concerns how a novice comes to solve a problem with the assistance of an ‘expert’. Who provides ‘scaffolding’, and then internalizes the solution.

Vygotsky argues that children learn through interpersonal activity, such as play with adults, whereby they form concepts that would be beyond them if they were acting alone. In other word, zones of proximal development are created through interaction with more knowledgeable others. Subsequently, the child learn how to control a concept without the assistance of others.

Ø  The Role of Output in L2 Acquisition

There are conflicting opinion:

1.       Krashen argues that ‘speaking is the result of acquisition not its cause’. He claims that the only way learners can learn from their output is by treating is as auto-input. In efeect, Krashen is refuting the cherished belief of many teachers that languages are learned by practicing them.

2.       Merrill Swain has argued that comprehensible output also plays in L2 acquisition. She suggests a number of specific ways in which learners can learn from their own output:

First, output can serve a consciousness – raising function by helping learners to notice gaps in their interlanguages.

Second, output helps learners to test hypotheses.

Third, learners sometimes talk about their own output, identifying problems with it and discussing ways in which they can be put right.

(SLA) SOCIAL ASPECTS OF INTERLANGUAGE

Name    : Safitri Dyah Utami

NIM       : 2201411058

Class      : 103-104

Social Aspects of Interlanguage

There are three approaches to incorporate a social angle on the study of L2 acquisition. The first views interlanguage as consisting of different ‘styles’ which learners call upon under different conditions of language use. The second concerns how social factors determine the input that learners use to construct their interlanguage. The third considers how the social identities that learners negotiate in their interactions with native speakers shape their opportunities to speak and, thereby, to learn an L2.

Ø  Interlanguage as a Stylistic Continuum

Elaine Tarone has proposed that interlanguage involves a stylistic continuum. She argues that learners develop a capability for using the L2 and that this underlies ‘all regular language behaviour’. This capability, which constitutes ‘an abstract linguistic system’, is comprised of a number of different ‘style’ which learner access in accordance with a variety of factors.

ž  The careful style, evident when learners are conciously attending to their choice of linguistic forms, as when they feel need to be ‘correct’.

ž  Vernacular style, evident when learners are making spontaneous choices of linguistic form, as is likely in free conversation.

Tarone’s idea of interlanguage as a stylistic continuum is attractive in a number of ways. It explains why learner language is variable. It suggests that an interlanguage grammar, although different from a native speaker’s grammar, is constructed according to the same priciples, for native speakers have been shown to posses a similar range of styles. It relates language use to language learning.

Ø  The acculturation model of L2 acquisition

A Similar Perspective On The Role Of Social Factors In L2 Acquisition Can Be Found In John Schumann’s Acculturation Model. Schumann Investigated A Thirty Three Years Old, Costa Rican, Named Alberto, Who Was Acquiring English In The  United States. Alberto Used A ‘Reduced And Simplified Form Of English’ Throughout.

The problems that Schuman found are he did not progress beyond the forst stage in the development of negatives, he continued to use declarative word order rather than inversion in question, he acquired vortually no aixilary verbs and he failed to mark regular verbs for past tense or nouns for possession.

The main reason for learners failing to acculturate is social distance. A learner’s social distance is determined by a number of factors. Schumsnn also recognizes that social distance is sometimes indeterminate.

As presented by Schumann, social factors determine the amount of contact with the L2 individual learners experience and thereby how successful they are in learning. There are two problems with such kind of model:

1.       First, it fails to acknowledge that factors like ‘integration pattern’ and ‘attitude’ are not fixed and static but, potetially, variable and dynami, fluctuating in accordance with the learne’s changing social experiences.

2.       Second, It fails to acknowledge that learners are not just subject to social conditions but can also become tha subject of them; they can help to construct the social context of their own learning.

Ø  Social Identity and Investment in L2 Learning

Eva, an adult immigrant learner of English in Canada. Eva felt humiliated in this conversation because she found herself positioned as a’strange woman’, someone who did not know who Bart Simpson was. She was subject to a discourse which assumed an identity she did not have.

The notion of social identity is central to the theory Pierce advances. She argues that language learners have complex social identities that can only be understood in term of the power relations that shape social structures. A learner’s social identity is, according to Pierce, ‘multiple and cintradictory’. Pierce’s social theory of L2 acquisition affords a different set of metaphor. L2 acquisition involves a ‘struggle’ and ‘investment’. Learners are not computers who process input data but combatants who battle to assert themeselves and investor who expect a good return on their effort.

(SLA) INTERLANGUAGE

Name    : Safitri Dyah Utami

NIM       : 2201411058

INTERLANGUAGE

The systematic development of learner language reflects a mental system of L2 knowledge which is often referred to as interlanguage. Interlanguage attempts to explain about “what is the nature of the linguistic representations of the L2 that learners form?” And “how do these representations change over time?”

Ø  BEHAVIOURIST LEARNING THEORY

According to this theory, language learning involves habit formation. Habits form when learners get stimuli from the environment then they try to response it. From the stimuli learners can learn by imitating models of correct language and making correct response. Learners can know that they have achieved the communication goal if the other person they are talking to understand what they mean or if they get what they want.

However, learning is not only a response to external stimuli, because learners can also learn from the systematic nature of their errors. The errors that learners make are signs that learner actively involved in constructing their own ‘rules’.

Ø  A MENTALIST THEORY OF LANGUAGE LEARNING

Researcher switched their attention from ‘nurture’ (how environmental factors shape learning) to ‘nature’ (how the innate properties of the human mind shape learning). This new paradigm was mentalist (or ‘nativist’) in orientation. According to this theory:

1.       Only human beings are capable of learning language.

2.       The human mind is equipped with a faculty for learning language, referred to as a Language Acquisition Device.

3.       This faculty is the primary determinant of language acquisition.

4.       Input is needed, but only to ‘trigger’ the operation of the language acquisition device.

Ø  WHAT IS ‘INTERLANGUAGE’?

‘Interlanguage’ was a unique linguistic system. It is type of language produced by second- and foreign- language learners who are in the process of learning a language.

The concept of interlanguage involves the following premises about L2 acquisition:

1.       The learner constructs a system of abstract linguistic rules. This called as a ’mental grammar’ and referred to as an ‘interlanguage’.

2.       The learner grammar is permeable. That is the grammar is open to influence from the outside (input) and from the inside. For example, omission, overgeneralization, and transfer errors.

3.       The learner’s grammar is transitional (learners change their grammar from one time to another by adding rules, deleting rules and reconstructing it). This results in an interlanguage continuum. That is, the learners construct a series of mental grammars or interlanguages as they gradually increase the complexity of their L2 knowledge.

4.       The systems learners construct contain variable rules. Variability that earners made reflects the mistakes that learners make when they try to use their knowledge to communicate.

5.       Learners employ various learning strategy to develop their interlanguages. Different errors from learners reflect different learning strategies.

6.       The learner’s grammar is likely to fossilize.

Ø  A Computational Model of L2 Acquisition

The concept of interlanguuage can be viewed as a metaphor of how L2 acquisition takes place. The learner is exposed to input, which is processed in two stages. First, part of it are attended to and taken into short term memory. Second, some of the intake is stored in long term memory as L2 knowledge. Finally, L2 knowledge is used by the learner to produce spoken and written output.