(SLA) LINGUISTIC ASPECTS OF INTERLANGUAGE

Name    : Safitri Dyah Utami

NIM       : 2201411058

Class      : 103-104

Second Language Acquisition

LINGUISTIC ASPECTS OF INTERLANGUAGE

Typological universals: relative clauses

In the study of relative clauses, we can find a good example of how linguistic enquiry can shed light on interlanguage development. The effects of relative clause structure on L2 acquisition are:

1.       We have known that the languages vary in whether they have relative clause structures. The languages, like English and Arabic that have the linguistic difference can influence the ease with which the learners are able to learn relative clause. It makes the learners easier to learn than learners whose L1 does not, like Chinese and Japanese. Consequently, they are less likely to avoid them.

2.       In languages like English, the linguistic structure influences how acquisition proceeds. It is because the fact that relative clauses may or may not interrupt the main clause. A relative clause can be attached to the end of a matrix clause, for example:

The police have caught the man who bombed the hotel.

                Or, they can be embedded in the main clause, for example:

The man who bombed the hotel has been caught by the police.

3.       Languages are more likely to permit relative clauses with a subject (for example, ‘who’) than with an object pronoun (for example, ‘whom’). English is the language that permits the full range of relative pronoun functions. It can be illustrated in a hierarchy of relativization that is known as the accessibility hierarchy. The accessibility hierarchy is implicational in the sense that the presence of a relative pronoun function low in the order in a particular language implies the presence of all the pronoun functions above it but not those bellow it.

This is the accessibility hierarchy for relative clauses – relative pronoun function:

1.            Subject, e.g. The writer who won the Booker prize is my lifelong friend.

2.            Direct object, e.g. The writer whom we met won the Booker prize.

3.            Indirect object, e.g. The writer to whom I introduced you won the Booker prize.

4.            Object of preposition, e.g. The writer with whom we had dinner won the Booker prize.

5.            Genitive, e.g. The writer whose wife we met won the Booker prize.

6.            Object of comparative, e.g. The writer who I have written more books than has won the Booker prize.

Universal Grammar

Based on Noam Chomsky, language is governed by a set of highly abstract principles that provide parameters which are given particular settings in different languages. A general principle of language is that it permits co-reference by mans of some form of reflective.

•             Local binding: where a reflexive can only co-refer to a subject within the same clause, like English.

•             Long-distance binding: where the reflexive co-refers to a subject in another clause, is prohibited.

The study proves that the learners whose L1 permits both local and long-distance binding of reflexives can learn that a language like English permits only local binding may seem a rather trivial matter, for example, Japanese learners.

Learnability

According to Chomsky, the input in children learning their first language is insufficient to enable them to discover the rules of the language they are trying to learn – the poverty of the stimulus. The input consists of:

•             Positive evidence: it provides information only about what is grammatical in the language.

•             Negative evidence: input that provides direct evidence of what is ungrammatical in a language.

But, the input does not provide the information needed for learning to be successful.

A logical problem in the case of first language acquisition:

•             The children must have prior knowledge of what is grammatically possible and impossible and this is part of their biological endowment.

The Critical Period Hypothesis

The critical period hypothesis states that there is a period during which language acquisition is easy and complete and beyond which it is difficult and typically incomplete. One study clarifies that age of arrival is a much better predictor of ultimate achievement than the number of years of exposure to the target language. There is considerable evidence to support the claim that the second language learners who begin learning as adults are unable to achieve native-speaker competence in either grammar or pronunciation. However, the other study finds that there is some evidence that not all learners are subject to critical periods. Some are able to achieve native speaker ability from an adult start.

Access to UG

Theoretical positions of no agreement in access to UG for the adult L2 learners:

1.       Complete access: Full target language competence is possible and that there is no such thing as a critical period.

2.       No access: UG is not available to adult L2 learners. They will normally not be able to achieve full competence and their interlanguages may manifest ‘impossible’ rules (rules that would be prohibited by UG)

3.       Partial access: L2 acquisition is partly regulated by UG and partly by general learning strategies.

4.       Dual access: Adult L2 learners make use of both UG and general learning strategies

However, it assumes that adult learners can only be successful providing they rely on UG.

Markedness

The study of markedness means the uncertainty regarding the contribution of linguistic theory to the study of L2 acquisition is also evident in another area of linguistic enquiry.

Hypothesis relating to markedness:

•             The learners acquire less marked structures before more marked ones.

•             Learners are much more likely to transfer unmarked structures from their L1 than they are marked structured.

Cognitive versus linguistic explanations

There is no consensus on whether L2 acquisition is to be explained in terms of a distinct and innate language faculty or in terms of general cognitive abilities. It allows for modularity – the existence of different components of language that are learned in different ways, some through UG and others with the assistance of general cognitive abilities.

(SLA) PSYCHOLINGUISTIC ASPECTS OF INTERLANGUAGE

Name    : Safitri Dyah Utami

NIM       : 2201411058

Class      : 103-104

Academic Writing

PSYCHOLINGUISTIC ASPECTS OF INTERLANGUAGE

Ø  L1 TRANSFER

L1 transfer refers to the influence that the learner’s L1 exerts over the acquisition of an L2.

›  The learner’s L1 is one of the sources of error in learner language (negative transfer)

›  The learner’s L1 can facilitate L2 acquisition (positive transfer)

                Behaviourist theories led to two developments:

›  Some theorist, espousing strong mentalist accounts of L2 acquisition, sought to play down the role of the L1.

›  Reconceptualize transfer within a cognitive framework.

According to Eric Kellerman, learners treat some linguistic features as potentially transferable and non-transferable. Kellerman found that advanced Dutch learners of English had clear perceptions about which meanings of ‘breken’ (‘break’) were basic in their L1. Transfer errors do not always occur when they are predicted to occur. Differences between the target and native language do not always result in learning difficulty.

He also found that they were prepared to translate a sentence like:

                                Hij brak zijin been. (He broke his leg.)

directly into English, using ‘broke’ for ‘brak’ but were not prepared to give a direct translation of a

sentence like:

                                Het ondergrondse verset werd gebroken.

                                (the underground resistance was broken.)

Other researchers have found that the transfer of some L1grammatical features is tied to the learners of English.

Transfer errors do not always occur when they are predicted to occur. Differences between the target and native language do not always result in learning difficulty.

When language transfer takes place there is usually no loss of L1 knowledge. This obvious fact has led to the suggestion that a better term for referring to the effects of the L1 might be ‘cross-linguistic influence.’

Ø  The Role of Consciousness in L2 acquisition

Adults seem to have work hard and to study the language consciously in order to succeed when they acquire L2. in contrast, children seem to do so without conscious effort when they acquire their L1. There are two opposing position which can be identified:

1.       Stephen Krashen has argued the need to distinguish ‘acquired’ L2 knowledge (i.e. implicite knowledge of language) and ‘learned’ L2 knowledge (i.e. explicit knowledge about language).

2.       Richard Schmidt has poinyed out that the term ‘consciousness’ is often used very loosely in SLA and argues that there is a need to standardize  the concept that underlie its use.  For example, he distinguihes between consciousness as ‘intentionality’ and consciousness as ‘attantion’.

‘Intentionality’ that refers to whether a learner makes an conscious and deliberate decition to learn some L2 knowledge. He failed to recognize that ‘incidental’ acquisition might in fact still involving some degree of conscious ‘attention’ to input. In the other words, learning incidentally is not the same as learning without conscious attention.

Irrespective of whether learners learn implicitly or explicitly, it is widely accepted that they can acquire different kind of knowledge. Explicit knowledge may help learners to move from intake to acquisition by helping to notice the gap between what they have observed in the input and the current state of their interlanguage as manifested in their own output.

Another way of identifying the processes responsible for interlanguage development is to deduce the operations that learners perform from a close inspection of their output. We shall examine two of them here; operating prinsiples and processing constrains.

Ø  Operating principles

Operating principles is the study of the L1 acquisition of many different language has led to the identification of a number of general strategies which children use to extract and segment linguistic information from the language they hear.

Ø  Processing constrains

Processing constrains sought to account for both why learners acquire the grammar of a language in a definite order and also why some learners only develop very simple interlanguage grammar.

Ø  Communication Strategies

Communicative Strategy – a way of overcoming a gap between communicative intent and a limited ability to express that intent, as part of the strategic competence. For example, : silkworm translated as worm and art gallery translated as picture place.

Ø  Two Types of Computational Model

1.       Serial Processing

Information is processed in a series of sequential step and results in the representation of what has been learned (the mind is processing one thing at a time in a series)

2.       Parallel Distributed Processing

This credits the learner with the ability to perform a number of mental  tasks at  the same thing. (the mind is processing multiple things at one time)

(SLA) DISCOURSE ASPECTS OF INTERLANGUAGE

Name    : Safitri Dyah Utami

NIM       : 2201411058

Class      : 103-104

Discourse Aspects of Interlanguage

The study of learner discourse in SLA has been informed by two rather different goals. On the one hand there have been attempts to discover howL2 learners acquire to ‘rules’ of discourse that inform native-speaker language use. On the other hand, a number of researchers have sought to show how interaction shapes interlanguage development.

Ø  Acquiring discourse rules

There are rules or at least, regularities in the ways in which native speakers hold conversation. In the United States, for example, a compliment usually calls for a response and failure to provide one can be considered sociolinguistic error. Furthermore, in American English compliment responses are usually quite elaborate, involving some attempt on the part of the speaker to play down the compliment by making some unfavourable comment.

However, L2 learners behave differently. Sometimes they fail to respond to a compliment at all. At other times they produce bare responses

There is growing body of research investigating learner discourse. This show that, to some extent at least, the acquisition of discourse rules, like tha acquisition of grammatical rules, is systematic, reflecting both distinct types of errors and developmental sequences.

Ø  The Role of Input and Interaction in L2 Acquisition

A number of rather different theoretical positions can be identified. A behaviourist view trearts language learning as environmentally determined, controlled from the outside by the stimuli learners are exposed to and the reinforcement they receive. In contrast, mentalist theories emphasize the importance of the learner’s ‘black box’. They maintain that learners’ brains are especially equipped to learn language and all that is needed is minimal exposure to input in order to trigger acquisition. Interactionist theories of L2 acquisition acknowledge the importance of both input and internal language processing. Learning takes place as a result of complex interaction between the linguistic environment and the leraners’ internal mechanisms. Two types of foreigner talk:

a.       Ungrammatically foreigner talk

It is socially marked. If often implies a lack of respect on the part of the native speaker and can be resented by learners. It is characterized by the deletion of certain grammatical features such as copula be , modal verbs and articles, the use of the base form of the verb in place of the past tense form, and the use of special constructions such as ‘no + verb’.

b.      Grammatical foreigner talk

It is the norm. various types of modification of baseline talk can be identified:

First, grammatical foreign talk is delivered at a slower pace.

Second, the input is simplified.

Third, grammatical foreigner talk is sometimes regularized.

Fourth, foreigner talk sometimes consist of elaborated language use.

According to Stephen Krashen’s input hypothesis, L2 acquisition takes place when a learner understands input that contains grammatical forms that í + I’. Karenshen suggests that the right level of input is attained automatically when interlocutors succed in making themselves understood in communication. Success is achieved by using the situational context to make messages clear and through the kinds of input modifications found in foreigner talk.

Michael Long’s interaction hypothesis also emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input but claims that it is most effective when it is modified through the negotiation of meaning.

Another perspective on the relationship between discourse and L2 acquisition is provided by Evelyn Hatch. Hatch emphasizes the collaborative endeavours of the learners and their interlocutures can grow out of the process of bulding discourse.

Other SLA theorist have drawn on the theories of L.S. Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, to explain how interaction serves as the bedrock of acquisition. The two key constructs in what is known as activity theory’, based on vygotsky’s ideas, are ‘motive’ and ‘internalization’.

·         First, concerns the active way in which individuals define the goals of an activity for themselves by deciding what to attend to and what not to attend to.

·         Second, concerns how a novice comes to solve a problem with the assistance of an ‘expert’. Who provides ‘scaffolding’, and then internalizes the solution.

Vygotsky argues that children learn through interpersonal activity, such as play with adults, whereby they form concepts that would be beyond them if they were acting alone. In other word, zones of proximal development are created through interaction with more knowledgeable others. Subsequently, the child learn how to control a concept without the assistance of others.

Ø  The Role of Output in L2 Acquisition

There are conflicting opinion:

1.       Krashen argues that ‘speaking is the result of acquisition not its cause’. He claims that the only way learners can learn from their output is by treating is as auto-input. In efeect, Krashen is refuting the cherished belief of many teachers that languages are learned by practicing them.

2.       Merrill Swain has argued that comprehensible output also plays in L2 acquisition. She suggests a number of specific ways in which learners can learn from their own output:

First, output can serve a consciousness – raising function by helping learners to notice gaps in their interlanguages.

Second, output helps learners to test hypotheses.

Third, learners sometimes talk about their own output, identifying problems with it and discussing ways in which they can be put right.

(SLA) SOCIAL ASPECTS OF INTERLANGUAGE

Name    : Safitri Dyah Utami

NIM       : 2201411058

Class      : 103-104

Social Aspects of Interlanguage

There are three approaches to incorporate a social angle on the study of L2 acquisition. The first views interlanguage as consisting of different ‘styles’ which learners call upon under different conditions of language use. The second concerns how social factors determine the input that learners use to construct their interlanguage. The third considers how the social identities that learners negotiate in their interactions with native speakers shape their opportunities to speak and, thereby, to learn an L2.

Ø  Interlanguage as a Stylistic Continuum

Elaine Tarone has proposed that interlanguage involves a stylistic continuum. She argues that learners develop a capability for using the L2 and that this underlies ‘all regular language behaviour’. This capability, which constitutes ‘an abstract linguistic system’, is comprised of a number of different ‘style’ which learner access in accordance with a variety of factors.

ž  The careful style, evident when learners are conciously attending to their choice of linguistic forms, as when they feel need to be ‘correct’.

ž  Vernacular style, evident when learners are making spontaneous choices of linguistic form, as is likely in free conversation.

Tarone’s idea of interlanguage as a stylistic continuum is attractive in a number of ways. It explains why learner language is variable. It suggests that an interlanguage grammar, although different from a native speaker’s grammar, is constructed according to the same priciples, for native speakers have been shown to posses a similar range of styles. It relates language use to language learning.

Ø  The acculturation model of L2 acquisition

A Similar Perspective On The Role Of Social Factors In L2 Acquisition Can Be Found In John Schumann’s Acculturation Model. Schumann Investigated A Thirty Three Years Old, Costa Rican, Named Alberto, Who Was Acquiring English In The  United States. Alberto Used A ‘Reduced And Simplified Form Of English’ Throughout.

The problems that Schuman found are he did not progress beyond the forst stage in the development of negatives, he continued to use declarative word order rather than inversion in question, he acquired vortually no aixilary verbs and he failed to mark regular verbs for past tense or nouns for possession.

The main reason for learners failing to acculturate is social distance. A learner’s social distance is determined by a number of factors. Schumsnn also recognizes that social distance is sometimes indeterminate.

As presented by Schumann, social factors determine the amount of contact with the L2 individual learners experience and thereby how successful they are in learning. There are two problems with such kind of model:

1.       First, it fails to acknowledge that factors like ‘integration pattern’ and ‘attitude’ are not fixed and static but, potetially, variable and dynami, fluctuating in accordance with the learne’s changing social experiences.

2.       Second, It fails to acknowledge that learners are not just subject to social conditions but can also become tha subject of them; they can help to construct the social context of their own learning.

Ø  Social Identity and Investment in L2 Learning

Eva, an adult immigrant learner of English in Canada. Eva felt humiliated in this conversation because she found herself positioned as a’strange woman’, someone who did not know who Bart Simpson was. She was subject to a discourse which assumed an identity she did not have.

The notion of social identity is central to the theory Pierce advances. She argues that language learners have complex social identities that can only be understood in term of the power relations that shape social structures. A learner’s social identity is, according to Pierce, ‘multiple and cintradictory’. Pierce’s social theory of L2 acquisition affords a different set of metaphor. L2 acquisition involves a ‘struggle’ and ‘investment’. Learners are not computers who process input data but combatants who battle to assert themeselves and investor who expect a good return on their effort.

(SLA) INTERLANGUAGE

Name    : Safitri Dyah Utami

NIM       : 2201411058

INTERLANGUAGE

The systematic development of learner language reflects a mental system of L2 knowledge which is often referred to as interlanguage. Interlanguage attempts to explain about “what is the nature of the linguistic representations of the L2 that learners form?” And “how do these representations change over time?”

Ø  BEHAVIOURIST LEARNING THEORY

According to this theory, language learning involves habit formation. Habits form when learners get stimuli from the environment then they try to response it. From the stimuli learners can learn by imitating models of correct language and making correct response. Learners can know that they have achieved the communication goal if the other person they are talking to understand what they mean or if they get what they want.

However, learning is not only a response to external stimuli, because learners can also learn from the systematic nature of their errors. The errors that learners make are signs that learner actively involved in constructing their own ‘rules’.

Ø  A MENTALIST THEORY OF LANGUAGE LEARNING

Researcher switched their attention from ‘nurture’ (how environmental factors shape learning) to ‘nature’ (how the innate properties of the human mind shape learning). This new paradigm was mentalist (or ‘nativist’) in orientation. According to this theory:

1.       Only human beings are capable of learning language.

2.       The human mind is equipped with a faculty for learning language, referred to as a Language Acquisition Device.

3.       This faculty is the primary determinant of language acquisition.

4.       Input is needed, but only to ‘trigger’ the operation of the language acquisition device.

Ø  WHAT IS ‘INTERLANGUAGE’?

‘Interlanguage’ was a unique linguistic system. It is type of language produced by second- and foreign- language learners who are in the process of learning a language.

The concept of interlanguage involves the following premises about L2 acquisition:

1.       The learner constructs a system of abstract linguistic rules. This called as a ’mental grammar’ and referred to as an ‘interlanguage’.

2.       The learner grammar is permeable. That is the grammar is open to influence from the outside (input) and from the inside. For example, omission, overgeneralization, and transfer errors.

3.       The learner’s grammar is transitional (learners change their grammar from one time to another by adding rules, deleting rules and reconstructing it). This results in an interlanguage continuum. That is, the learners construct a series of mental grammars or interlanguages as they gradually increase the complexity of their L2 knowledge.

4.       The systems learners construct contain variable rules. Variability that earners made reflects the mistakes that learners make when they try to use their knowledge to communicate.

5.       Learners employ various learning strategy to develop their interlanguages. Different errors from learners reflect different learning strategies.

6.       The learner’s grammar is likely to fossilize.

Ø  A Computational Model of L2 Acquisition

The concept of interlanguuage can be viewed as a metaphor of how L2 acquisition takes place. The learner is exposed to input, which is processed in two stages. First, part of it are attended to and taken into short term memory. Second, some of the intake is stored in long term memory as L2 knowledge. Finally, L2 knowledge is used by the learner to produce spoken and written output.

(AW) Journal Summary

Name    : Safitri Dyah Utami

NIM       : 2201411058

Class      : 101-102

Journal Summary

Vocabulary Learning in a Second Language: Person, Task, Context and Strategies

Rote Rehearsal and Vocabulary Learning

When a person has learned many words in foreign language he/she will face a problem, that is memorize all of the words. Then the first and easiest strategy people pick up and use naturally is, simply, repeating new words until they can be recognized. There are four of the most interesting issues on word list learning will be introduced:

1.       Number of repetitions needed to remember a word list

Remembering word pairs is the aim, a surprising amount can be learned within a relatively short time (Thorndike, 1908; Webb, 1962), and not many repetitions are needed before the L2-L1 word pairs can be remembered. [-10-]

2.       The optimum number of words to be studied at one time

It depends on the difficulty level of the words on the list. Crothers and Suppes (1967), for example, examined list sizes ranging from 18 to 300 and discovered that when words were difficult, small list sizes were better, and that when words were easy, large sizes were more efficient. It was thus suggested that if a word list does not contain a lot of difficult words, lists of 100 or more words can be studied at one time.

3.       The timing for repetition

Almost all studies focusing on the pacing of repetition and recall of word lists arrived at the same conclusion: that forgetting mostly occurs immediately after initial encounter, and that the rate of forgetting slows down afterwards. Anderson and Jordan (1928) examined the number of words that could be recalled immediately after initial learning, 1 week, 3 weeks, and 8 weeks thereafter and discovered a learning rate of 66%, 48%, 39%, and 37% respectively. It was therefore suggested that students should start repeating newly learned words immediately after the first encounter. Spaced recall and repetition should follow afterwards at longer intervals.

4.       Repeating aloud vs. repeating silently

There is an empirical results in this studies that repeating words aloud helps retention far better than silent repetition. Seibert (1927) studied three conditions: studying aloud, studying aloud with written recall, and studying silently, and found that the first condition always produced better results than the other two. Then he studied about the time for relearning after a few weeks after that, and he found that learning aloud was more efficient.

It is worth noting that recent literature shows that individual differences play an important part in determining a person's memorization capacities (Miyake & Shah, 1999). This will mean, among other things, that vocabulary retention is very much a function of an individual's skillfulness in memory strategies. It also means that the ability to memorize and the preference for memorization are dependant upon the cultural background of the learner. With this in mind, let us turn to deeper strategies for vocabulary learning.

Gu, P. Y. (2003). Vocabulary Learning in a Second Language: Person, Task, Context and Strategies. TESL–EJ 7:2.

(AW) Book Summary

Name    : Safitri Dyah Utam

NIM       : 2201411058

Class      : 101-102

Book:  Teaching Vocabulary

Lessons from the Corpus Lessons for the Classroom

By Jeanne McCarten

How can we help learners learn vocabulary

There is a lot of advantages in learning vocabulary. Materials can help students in two broad areas:

1.       They need to present and practice in natural contexts the vocabulary that is frequent, current, and appropriate to learners’ needs.  Materials should help students become better learners of vocabulary by teaching different techniques and strategies they can use to continue learning outside the classroom.

These are the key principles that we can follow to help students learn vocabulary more effectively:

A.      Teaching vocabulary in class:

1.       Focus on vocabulary

One of the first vocabulary learning strategies for any classroom is how to ask for words you don’t know in English, and how to ask the meaning of English words you don’t understand, so phrases like “What’s the word for in English?,” “How do you say ?,” and “What does mean?” are useful to teach at the basic levels. As students progress, another useful strategy

they can use is to paraphrase: “It’s a kind of ,” “It’s like a ,” and “It’s for -ing X” etc. Focusing on these strategies puts vocabulary learning firmly on the classroom agenda.

materials can help teachers in this in the following ways:

·         Providing clearly marked vocabulary lessons

·         Making the target vocabulary set stand out, including focused practice and regular review

·         Giving lists of vocabulary to be learned for the lesson

2.       Offer variety

Teachers can use different ways to present vocabu­lary including pictures, sounds, and different text types with which students can identify: stories, conversations, web pages, questionnaires, news reports, etc.

3.       Repeat and recycle

Learning vocabulary is largely about remembering, and students generally need to see, say, and write newly learned words many times before they can be said to have learned them. Repeating words aloud helps students remember words better than repeating them silently.

4.       Provide opportunities to organize vocabulary

Types for organizing vocabularies:

·         Real-world groups: occur in the real world, such as the countries within each continent, parts of the body, the foods in each food type, activities that take place for a celebration, etc.

·         Language-based groups draw on linguistic criteria as ways of grouping, for example, the different parts of speech of a word family; words that have the same prefix or suffix, or the same sound; verbs and dependent prepositions; collocations of different kinds (verb + noun; adjective + noun, etc.).

·         Personalized groups use students’ own preferences and experiences as the basis for the groups. It might include grouping vocabulary according to likes and dislikes, personal habits or personal history, for example, foods that you like and don’t like, or eat often, sometimes, rarely, or that you ate for breakfast, lunch, and dinner yesterday.

5.       Make vocabulary learning personal

materials should provide opportunities for students to use the vocabulary meaningfully, to say and write true things about themselves and their lives.

6.       Don’t overdo it!

Another important point is not to overload students – there are limits to how much vocabulary anyone can absorb for productive use in one lesson.

7.       Use strategic vocabulary in class

Since the classroom may be the main or only place that students hear or use English, it’s important to include in lessons the strategic vocabulary. In doing this, it’s possible to use a range of basic discourse markers for starting, concluding, and changing topics, such as All right/Okay, So, Let’s start, Let’s move on.

B.      Helping students become independent learners in and out of class

1.       Vocabulary notebooks

Usually students’ own vocabulary note-taking consists of writing translations of single words in lists, but it can be much more varied than this, including labeling pictures and diagrams, completing charts and word webs, writing true sentences, creating short dialogues, etc.

2.       Research tools

Students now have access to vast resources such as the Internet and the wealth of information in learners’ and online dictionaries. they can exploit any resources more effectively and become more independent in their learning.

3.       Everyday usage

Materials can also provide students with ideas to activate and practice vocabulary in their everyday life, which is especially useful for students who live in non-English-speaking environments.

(AW) References (revision)

Name  : Safitri Dyah Utami

NIM     : 2201411058

Academic Writing

Topic   : The Effectiveness of Rewriting Song Lyrics to improve Students Vocabulary Mastery

References

Allen, J. 2004. Inside words: Tools for teaching academic vocabulary, grades 4–12. Portland: Stenhouse.

Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. 2008. Creating robust vocabulary: Frequently asked questions and extended examples. New York: Guilford.

Brown, H. D. 2006. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall

Cunningham, P. M. 2005. Phonics they use: Words for reading and writing (4th ed.). New York: HarperCollins.

Fry, E. B. 2004. The Vocabulary Teacher's Book of Lists. San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass

Graves, M. F. 2006. The vocabulary book: Learning and instruction. New York: Teachers College Press.

Graves, M. F., & Watts, T. S. (2008). For the love of words: Fostering word consciousness in young readers. The Reading Teacher. 62(3). 185–193.

Gu, P. Y. (2003). Vocabulary Learning in a Second Language: Person, Task, Context and Strategies. TESL–EJ 7:2.

Harmer, J. 2004. How to Teach English. Edinburgh Gate: Pearson Education Limite

Harmon, J. M., & Hedrick, W. B. (2005). Research on vocabulary instruction in content areas: Implications for struggling readers. Reading & Writing Quarterly. 21(1). 261–280.

McCarten, J. 2007. Teaching Vocabulary: Lessons from the Corpus, Lessons for the Classroom. Cambridge University Press

Saukah, A. 2004. The Teaching of Writing and Grammar in English. Jurnal Ilmu Pendidikan. 28(2). 191-199.

Snow, C. E., Griffin, P., & Burns, M. S. (Eds.). 2005. Knowledge to support the teaching of reading: Preparing teachers for a changing world. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Thornbury, S. 2003. How to Teach Vocabulary. Oxfordshire: Longman Pearson Education

Winters, R. 2009. Interactive frames for vocabulary growth and word consciousness. The Reading Teacher. 62(8). 685–690.